The Case for Christ

Eyewitness Credibility of Gospels

The gospels are presented as eyewitness accounts of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection. This is a significant strength, as eyewitness testimony is a powerful form of historical evidence.

The gospels adhere to ancient biographical standards, which were less focused on comprehensive chronology and more on highlighting the most significant and illustrative events. This approach lends credibility to the accounts.

Furthermore, the early church consistently affirmed the reliability of the gospels, treating them as authoritative records of Jesus' life and ministry. This early endorsement from those closest to the events described bolsters the gospels' historical standing.

Taken together, the eyewitness nature of the gospels, their alignment with ancient biographical norms, and the early church's validation of their accuracy provide a robust framework for considering the gospels as highly reliable historical sources about the life of Jesus.

Here are key examples from the context that support the credibility of the eyewitness accounts in the gospels:

• Leo Carter's Eyewitness Testimony: Leo Carter's eyewitness account of a crime he witnessed was powerful and convincing, leading to the conviction of the perpetrators. This demonstrates how credible eyewitness testimony can be, even when it comes from distant events.

• 1 Corinthians 15 Creed: This early Christian creed, predating the gospels, lists named eyewitnesses who saw the resurrected Jesus, including 500 people at once. This provides very early attestation to the resurrection accounts.

• Lack of Time for Legendary Development: Scholars note there was not enough time between the events of Jesus' life and the writing of the gospels for legends to have developed. The accounts were circulating within the lifetimes of Jesus' contemporaries.

• Divergence in Gospel Details: The harmony among the gospels on essential facts, coupled with divergence on some details, lends historical credibility to the accounts. This suggests the writers were recording actual events, not fabricating a legend.

• Corroborating Ancient Sources: There are over 30 ancient sources outside the Bible that corroborate key facts about Jesus' life, teachings, crucifixion, and resurrection, further strengthening the eyewitness credibility.

• Archaeology Confirming Gospel Details: Archaeological findings have consistently enhanced the credibility of the New Testament, with no discoveries disproving biblical references, lending support to the eyewitness nature of the gospel accounts.

Archaeological Affirmation

Archaeological discoveries have repeatedly affirmed the historical accuracy of the Gospel accounts. This stands in stark contrast to other religious texts like the Book of Mormon, which lack any archaeological evidence to support their claims.

The New Testament has consistently withstood scrutiny from archaeologists. Locations, events, and details mentioned in the Gospels have been verified time and again through excavations and historical findings. This lends credibility to the reliability of these ancient texts as accurate historical sources.

In contrast, extensive archaeological research has failed to uncover any evidence supporting the claims made in the Book of Mormon about events and locations in the Americas. This lack of corroborating archaeological data casts serious doubt on the historical accuracy of that religious text.

The strong archaeological support for the Gospels, combined with other forms of evidence, builds a compelling case for the reliability of the New Testament accounts. This stands in stark opposition to the lack of archaeological confirmation for other religious writings, underscoring the unique historical grounding of the Christian Scriptures.

Here are some key examples from the context that support the insight about how archaeological discoveries have upheld the historical accuracy of the Gospel accounts:

• The Pool of Bethesda: Excavations have uncovered the Pool of Bethesda, which is described in detail in the Gospel of John, including the fact that it had five porticoes - exactly as John had reported.

• The Pool of Siloam: Archaeologists have also discovered the Pool of Siloam, which is mentioned in John's Gospel as the place where Jesus healed a blind man.

• Jacob's Well: The well that Jesus visited in the Gospel of John has also been located by archaeologists.

• The Stone Pavement: Excavations have revealed the probable location of the Stone Pavement near the Jaffa Gate, where the Gospel of John says Jesus appeared before Pilate.

• Papyrus Fragment of John: A fragment of a copy of the Gospel of John, dated to around 125 AD, has been discovered in Egypt, demonstrating that the Gospel was in circulation very early.

In contrast, the book notes that archaeology has failed to corroborate the claims made in the Book of Mormon, with no evidence found for the cities, people, or events described in that text. This highlights the strong archaeological support for the historical reliability of the Gospel accounts.

Psychological Profile of Jesus

The psychological evaluations in the book assert that Jesus exhibited sound mental health and a unique self-understanding, debunking theories of his insanity and supporting his claims of divinity.

The experts analyze Jesus' emotions, behaviors, and thought processes, finding no signs of mental disturbance. For instance, Jesus displayed appropriate emotions, such as crying at the death of a friend, rather than inappropriate depression, anger, or anxiety. His anger was a healthy reaction against injustice, not irrational frustration. Crucially, Jesus demonstrated clear, logical thinking and profound insights into human nature, unlike those with psychological disorders.

Furthermore, the experts refute attempts to explain away Jesus' miracles as mere hypnosis or hallucinations. They argue that Jesus' miraculous acts, including healing the blind and raising the dead, defy naturalistic explanations and point to his divine power. The empty tomb and eyewitness accounts of the resurrected Christ also undermine such skeptical theories.

In summary, the psychological analysis in the book paints a portrait of Jesus as a mentally and emotionally healthy individual who made extraordinary claims about his identity that were grounded in reality, not delusion. This lends credibility to his self-proclaimed status as the Son of God.

Here are the key examples from the context that support the psychological profile of Jesus:

• Jesus never demonstrated inappropriate emotions: The context states that while disturbed individuals frequently show inappropriate depression, anger, or anxiety, "look at Jesus: he never demonstrated inappropriate emotions. For instance, he cried at the death of his friend Lazarus - that's natural for an emotionally healthy individual."

• Jesus' anger was a "healthy kind of anger": The context notes that when Jesus got angry, "it was a healthy kind of anger at people taking advantage of the downtrodden by lining their pockets at the temple. He wasn't just irrationally ticked off because someone was annoying him; this was a righteous reaction against injustice and the blatant mistreatment of people."

• Jesus was "in contact with reality": The context states that unlike deluded people who have "misperceptions" and "think people are watching them or are trying to get them when they're not", "we don't see this in Jesus. He was obviously in contact with reality. He wasn't paranoid, although he rightfully understood that there were some very real dangers around him."

• Jesus spoke "clearly, powerfully, and eloquently": The context notes that unlike people with "thinking disorders" who "can't carry on a logical conversation, they'll jump to faulty conclusions, they're irrational", "we don't see this in Jesus. He spoke clearly, powerfully, and eloquently. He was brilliant and had absolutely amazing insights into human nature."

• Jesus' behavior was "quite in line with what would be expected": The context states that unlike people with "unsuitable behavior, such as dressing oddly or being unable to relate socially to others", "Jesus' behavior was quite in line with what would be expected, and he had deep and abiding relationships with a wide variety of people from different walks of life."

Messianic Prophecies as Fingerprint Evidence

The book presents a compelling analogy between messianic prophecies and fingerprint evidence. Just as a unique fingerprint pattern can conclusively link an individual to a crime scene, the numerous Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah form a figurative "fingerprint" that only Jesus Christ could have miraculously fulfilled.

Statistical analysis demonstrates the astronomical improbability of anyone randomly fulfilling even a small fraction of these detailed prophecies. Yet Jesus, and Jesus alone, matched this prophetic "fingerprint" with astounding precision. This provides powerful evidence that Jesus is indeed the long-awaited Messiah sent by God to redeem his people.

The book argues that this "fingerprint" analogy strengthens the case for Jesus' Messiahship far beyond mere academic debate. Just as fingerprint evidence carries great weight in a court of law, the fulfillment of messianic prophecies establishes Jesus' credentials as the authentic Messiah with a high degree of certainty.

Here are examples from the context that support the key insight about messianic prophecies as fingerprint evidence:

• The book cites a statistical analysis by mathematician Peter W. Stoner that calculated the probability of just 8 messianic prophecies being fulfilled by chance is "one chance in one hundred million billion" - a number "millions of times greater than the total number of people who've ever walked the planet!"

• Stoner also computed that the probability of fulfilling 48 prophecies is "one chance in a trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion!" - a number equal to the number of atoms in "a trillion, trillion, trillion, trillion, billion universes the size of our universe."

• The author states that "the odds alone say it would be impossible for anyone to fulfill the Old Testament prophecies, yet Jesus-and only Jesus throughout all of history-managed to do it."

• The author compares the fulfillment of messianic prophecies by Jesus to the "fingerprint evidence" that clinched convictions in the eyewitness testimony of Leo Carter against murderers, emphasizing the statistical improbability.

• The key concept is that the sheer statistical improbability of Jesus fulfilling so many specific messianic prophecies serves as powerful "fingerprint evidence" supporting the claim that he is the Messiah, just as eyewitness testimony can provide compelling evidence in a criminal case.

Challenges to Modern Skepticism

The book confronts modern scholarly skepticism head-on. It directly addresses the critiques put forth by the Jesus Seminar, a group that has sought to discredit the traditional views about Jesus. The book reinforces the traditional views about Jesus with robust argumentation and evidence.

The Jesus Seminar has used questionable criteria to conclude that Jesus did not actually say most of the words attributed to him in the Gospels. The book systematically dismantles these criteria, showing how they are biased and loaded to produce the desired skeptical conclusions. It provides concrete examples of how the Seminar's approach is flawed and fails to properly evaluate the historical reliability of the Gospel accounts.

Furthermore, the book draws on the insights of respected scholars from diverse theological backgrounds who have also criticized the Jesus Seminar's methodology and conclusions. This growing chorus of criticism underscores how the Seminar does not represent the mainstream of New Testament scholarship. Instead, the book affirms the credibility and authenticity of the Gospel narratives as reliable sources for understanding the historical Jesus.

Here are some examples from the context that support the key insight about the book confronting modern scholarly skepticism and reinforcing traditional views:

• The book critiques the assumptions and criteria used by the Jesus Seminar to conclude that Jesus did not say most of the words attributed to him in the Gospels. The author argues these criteria are "loaded" and biased against the authenticity of the Gospel traditions.

• The book cites scholars like Luke Timothy Johnson who systematically criticize the Jesus Seminar, calling its work a "self-indulgent charade" that does not represent responsible scholarship.

• The book presents archaeological evidence that supports the reliability of the Gospels, such as:

  • Discoveries that confirm details mentioned in the Gospel of John, like the Pool of Bethesda and the Pool of Siloam.
  • Evidence that refutes claims about the Gospel of Mark being inaccurate regarding Palestinian geography.

• The book argues that archaeology has not produced anything that is unequivocally a contradiction to the Bible, and has instead shown many skeptical scholarly opinions to be wrong.

• The book defends the reliability and authenticity of the four canonical Gospels, in contrast to the Gospel of Thomas which contains teachings "totally alien" to the Gospels.

Integration of Legal and Historical Methods

The author employs a legal and historical approach to make a compelling case for the reliability of the Gospels and the identity of Jesus. This involves carefully examining the available evidence, just as a lawyer would in a court case, and drawing reasonable conclusions based on that evidence.

The author looks at factors like the intent and methods of the Gospel writers, the transmission and preservation of the Jesus tradition, and the criteria used by the early church to determine the canon. By applying rigorous historical analysis, the author is able to demonstrate that the Gospels provide accurate and trustworthy accounts of Jesus' life, ministry, and identity as the Christ.

This integrated legal and historical approach allows the author to build a comprehensive, well-reasoned argument that addresses potential objections and counter-claims. The goal is to present a clear, compelling case that will convince the reader of the historical reliability of the New Testament's portrayal of Jesus.

Here are some examples from the context that support the key insight of integrating legal and historical methods to build a comprehensive case for the reliability of the Gospels and the identity of Jesus:

• The author compares the eyewitness testimony of Leo Carter, who helped convict three murderers, to the eyewitness accounts of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection found in the Gospels. Just as Leo's eyewitness testimony was crucial in a legal case, the author argues the eyewitness accounts of Jesus' contemporaries are crucial historical evidence.

• The author interviews biblical scholar Craig Blomberg, who discusses the criteria the early church used to determine which books would be considered authoritative and included in the New Testament canon. This mirrors the legal process of evaluating evidence and establishing credibility.

• The author critiques the assumptions and criteria used by the Jesus Seminar to dismiss much of Jesus' teachings in the Gospels. He argues these criteria are "loaded" and biased, similar to how a legal case can be undermined by flawed methodology.

• The author explores the historical reliability of the Gospels, including the speed with which the accounts of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection were circulated, and the lack of time for "legend" to develop. This meticulous historical analysis is akin to building a legal case.

• The author compares the exclusion of the Gospel of Thomas from the canon to a "judicious act" by the early church, similar to a legal system excluding unreliable evidence.

In summary, the context demonstrates how the author integrates principles of legal argumentation and historical research to construct a comprehensive, evidence-based case for the reliability of the Gospels and the identity of Jesus.

Quotes

Let's take a look at some key quotes from "The Case for Christ" that resonated with readers.

We have to ask, Why is there no other first-century Jew who has millions of followers today? Why isn’t there a John the Baptist movement? Why, of all first-century figures, including the Roman emperors, is Jesus still worshiped today, while the others have crumbled into the dust of history?

The question posed is why Jesus, among all prominent figures of the first century, remains uniquely relevant and worshipped today. Despite the presence of other influential individuals, such as John the Baptist and Roman emperors, Jesus stands out as a singular figure with an enduring legacy. This phenomenon prompts inquiry into the reasons behind his lasting impact, which sets him apart from others who have faded into obscurity.

The Jews proposed the ridiculous story that the guards had fallen asleep. Obviously, they were grasping at straws. But the point is this: they started with the assumption that the tomb was vacant! Why? Because they knew it was!

The opponents of Jesus' resurrection claimed that the guards at his tomb had fallen asleep, allowing someone to steal his body. This weak explanation reveals their desperation to disprove the empty tomb. In doing so, they inadvertently acknowledged that the tomb was indeed empty, which is a crucial detail supporting Jesus' resurrection.

But your love goes beyond that. You can know all these things about your wife and not be in love with her and put your trust in her, but you do. So the decision goes beyond the evidence, yet it is there also on the basis of the evidence. So it is with falling in love with Jesus. To have a relationship with Jesus Christ goes beyond just knowing the historical facts about him, yet it's rooted in the historical facts about him.

Having a deep connection with someone involves more than just knowing facts about them. It requires trust and faith, which are built upon a foundation of evidence and understanding. Similarly, forming a relationship with a higher power is not solely based on intellectual knowledge, but also on emotional and spiritual connections that grow from a solid foundation of facts and truths.

Chapter Notes

1. The Eyewitness Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Authorship of the Gospels: The four gospels are traditionally attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, with the exception of some uncertainty around the authorship of the Gospel of John. The early church testimony unanimously affirmed these traditional attributions, and there is no evidence of competing claims for authorship.

• Eyewitness Testimony in the Gospels: The gospels are based on eyewitness accounts, either directly from the disciples (Matthew and John) or indirectly through companions of the disciples (Mark and Luke). This provides a strong foundation for the historical reliability of the gospel narratives.

• Ancient vs. Modern Biographies: The gospels follow the conventions of ancient biographical writing, which differed from modern standards in areas like chronology, proportion, and verbatim quotations. This explains some of the differences between the gospels without undermining their historical reliability.

• The "Q" Source: Q refers to a hypothetical source document that may have contained sayings of Jesus, which Matthew and Luke incorporated into their gospels alongside material from Mark. The existence and contents of Q provide additional early evidence for the teachings of Jesus.

• Differences Between the Synoptic Gospels and John: While there are significant differences in content and style between the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) and the Gospel of John, these differences do not necessarily represent contradictions. Many of John's distinctive theological emphases have parallels in the Synoptics, just expressed more implicitly.

• Claims of Jesus' Divinity: The Synoptic Gospels, not just the Gospel of John, contain clear indications of Jesus' divine identity, such as his self-designation as the "Son of Man" and his ability to forgive sins, which were prerogatives of God alone.

• Early Dating of the Gospels: The gospels were likely written within 30-60 years of Jesus' life, much earlier than the 40+ years suggested by some scholars. This short timeframe makes it unlikely that significant legendary development occurred, as evidenced by the early Christian creeds and confessions that preserve the core beliefs about Jesus' death and resurrection.

2. Testing the Eyewitness Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Intention Test: The gospel writers, particularly Luke, explicitly state their intention to accurately record the historical events and teachings of Jesus.

• Ability Test: The early Christians had the ability to accurately preserve the oral traditions about Jesus through memorization techniques common in their culture, even though some variation was expected.

• Character Test: The gospel writers demonstrated great integrity and virtue, which suggests they were truthful in their accounts.

• Consistency Test: While the gospels contain some apparent contradictions, these can often be reconciled by understanding ancient writing conventions. The differences actually suggest independent eyewitness accounts rather than coordinated fabrication.

• Bias Test: The gospel writers' devotion to Jesus creates the potential for bias, but their willingness to include embarrassing details about themselves and Jesus suggests they were committed to accurately recording history.

• Cover-up Test: The gospel writers included many "hard sayings" of Jesus that would have been difficult or embarrassing to explain, indicating they did not simply fabricate a flattering portrait.

• Corroboration Test: Archaeological discoveries and non-Christian sources have corroborated many details mentioned in the gospels, increasing confidence in their historical reliability.

• Adverse Witness Test: Jesus' opponents did not deny the miracles and other key events recorded in the gospels, suggesting the accounts were accurate and widely known.

3. The Documentary Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Unprecedented Multiplicity of New Testament Manuscripts: The New Testament has an unprecedented number of surviving manuscripts compared to other ancient writings, with over 5,000 Greek manuscripts and a total of around 24,000 manuscripts in various languages. This provides strong evidence for the reliability of the New Testament text.

• Early Dating of New Testament Manuscripts: The earliest known fragment of the New Testament is a fragment of the Gospel of John, dated between 100-150 AD, which is remarkably close to the original composition of the text. Other early manuscripts, such as the Chester Beatty Papyri and the Bodmer Papyri, date to the 2nd-3rd centuries, further demonstrating the early preservation of the New Testament.

• Insignificant Nature of Textual Variants: While there are thousands of textual variants among the New Testament manuscripts, the vast majority are minor and do not affect any major doctrine or teaching. Scholars estimate that the New Testament text is 99.5% pure, with no textual variant calling into question any essential Christian belief.

• Careful Canonization Process: The early church used three main criteria to determine which books would be included in the New Testament canon: apostolic authority, conformity to the "rule of faith", and continuous acceptance and usage by the church. This process resulted in the inclusion of the four Gospels, Acts, the Pauline epistles, and the other books of the New Testament.

• Rejection of Apocryphal Gospels: The early church rejected apocryphal gospels, such as the Gospel of Thomas, because they contained teachings and content that were inconsistent with the authentic, eyewitness accounts of Jesus found in the four canonical Gospels. These later, non-apostolic writings were deemed unreliable and unworthy of inclusion in the New Testament.

• Increased Faith through Scholarship: For the renowned New Testament scholar Bruce Metzger, his extensive study of the New Testament text and its transmission actually increased his personal faith, as he became more confident in the reliability and authenticity of the Scriptures.

4. The Corroborating Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Corroborative Evidence: Corroborative evidence supports and confirms other testimony or evidence. It can take the form of public records, photographs, or additional testimony from other witnesses.

• Josephus' Testimony: Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, provides two important references to Jesus in his writings. The first refers to the execution of James, the brother of Jesus. The second, known as the Testimonium Flavianum, provides a detailed account of Jesus, though some scholars believe parts of it were later interpolated by Christian scribes.

• Tacitus' Testimony: Tacitus, a prominent Roman historian, refers to the persecution of Christians by Nero and mentions that the founder of this "mischievous superstition" was Christus (Christ), who was executed by Pontius Pilate.

• Pliny the Younger's Testimony: Pliny the Younger, a Roman governor, wrote a letter to the emperor Trajan describing the beliefs and practices of the early Christians, including their worship of Christ as a god.

• Thallus and the Darkness: The historian Thallus, writing in the mid-first century, apparently acknowledged the darkness that occurred during the crucifixion of Jesus, though he attempted to explain it as a natural eclipse.

• Pilate in the Gospels vs. Other Accounts: While the Gospels portray Pilate as reluctant to execute Jesus, other historical accounts suggest he was generally inflexible. This apparent contradiction is reconciled by the fact that Pilate's political position was weakened at the time of Jesus' crucifixion, making him more susceptible to pressure from the Jewish leaders.

• Jewish Accounts: The Talmud, a Jewish religious text, contains a few references to Jesus, describing him as a false messiah who practiced magic and was justly condemned to death.

• Early Christian Writings: The letters of Paul, as well as the writings of the "apostolic fathers" (early Christian authors after the New Testament), provide corroborating evidence for the essential details of Jesus' life, teachings, death, and resurrection.

• Strengthening of Faith: The historical evidence, including the corroborating sources outside the Gospels, has strengthened the faith of scholars like Yamauchi, who believe it reinforces the trustworthiness of the New Testament accounts.

5. The Scientific Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Archaeology Cannot Prove Spiritual Truths: Archaeology can establish the historical and geographical accuracy of the New Testament, but it cannot prove whether the spiritual claims about Jesus are true. Archaeology can only confirm the reliability of the New Testament as a historical document, not its divine inspiration.

• Luke's Accuracy as a Historian: Scholars, both liberal and conservative, agree that the gospel writer Luke was a highly accurate historian. Numerous archaeological discoveries have confirmed the details he provided about places, titles, and events, enhancing confidence in his overall reliability.

• Reliability of John and Mark: Archaeology has also lent credibility to the gospels of John and Mark, disproving claims that they contained inaccuracies about locations and geography.

• Plausible Explanations for Apparent Contradictions: The chapter provides reasonable explanations, based on archaeological evidence, for apparent contradictions in the New Testament, such as the census that brought Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem and the existence of Nazareth during Jesus' time.

• Significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls: The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, including a manuscript that references the "dead being raised" in a messianic context, provides intriguing support for Jesus' own claims about his identity as the Messiah.

• Contrast with Mormonism: While archaeology has repeatedly failed to substantiate the claims of the Book of Mormon, it has consistently affirmed the historical reliability of the New Testament, making it a "remarkably accurate source book."

6. The Rebuttal Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• The Jesus Seminar represents a small minority of radical-fringe scholars, not mainstream scholarship: The Jesus Seminar portrays itself as representing the scholarly consensus, but in reality, it represents an extremely small number of scholars on the far left wing of New Testament thinking. Many other scholars, from a wide spectrum of backgrounds, have serious reservations about the Seminar's methodology and conclusions.

• The Jesus Seminar uses biased criteria to dismiss the reliability of the gospels: The Seminar assumes the gospels are not reliable unless they can affirmatively prove a saying or event came from Jesus. They use criteria like "double dissimilarity" and "multiple attestation" to reach negative conclusions, even though these criteria are problematic and not universally accepted by scholars.

• Alleged parallels between Jesus and other figures like Apollonius or in mystery religions do not hold up under scrutiny: While there may be some superficial similarities, a closer examination reveals significant differences in the nature, context, and reliability of the sources. The evidence for the historical Jesus and his supernatural claims remains stronger than the evidence for these alleged parallels.

• The "new discoveries" touted by the Jesus Seminar, like the Gospel of Thomas, do not actually provide any new or reliable information about the historical Jesus: These documents are either non-existent, highly questionable, or simply being misinterpreted by the Seminar to fit their preconceived views.

• The Jesus of history and the Jesus of faith are not in conflict: The historical evidence, when examined objectively, supports the Christian claim that Jesus was a divine, supernatural figure who rose from the dead. Separating the Jesus of history from the Jesus of faith results in a powerless, meaningless symbol rather than the reality of the biblical accounts.

7. The Identity Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Jesus' Evasiveness in Disclosing His Identity: Jesus was careful about publicly proclaiming himself as the Messiah or Son of God, as such a claim would have been seen as blasphemy by the Jews of his time who did not have a concept of the Trinity. Jesus did not want to be "pigeon-holed" into someone else's expectations of the Messiah.

• Clues from Jesus' Relationships: Jesus' relationships with his disciples, John the Baptist, the religious leaders, and the Roman authorities provide clues about his self-understanding. For example, Jesus was not part of the Twelve disciples, suggesting he saw himself as forming the group rather than being part of it. His statements about surpassing John the Baptist and setting aside parts of the Mosaic law also indicate a belief in his own authority.

• Significance of Jesus' Miracles: Jesus interpreted his miracles as signs of the coming of God's kingdom, rather than just as amazing feats. This sets him apart from other miracle workers and suggests a belief in his own transcendent role.

• Jesus' Unique Teaching Authority: Jesus taught with the phrase "Amen I say to you," which was revolutionary as it meant he based his teachings on his own authority rather than that of others. This implies a belief in his own divine inspiration and authority.

• Jesus' Use of "Abba": Jesus' use of the intimate term "Abba" (Dearest Father) to address God was unique and suggests a degree of intimacy with God that was unprecedented in Judaism. This points to Jesus' belief in a special relationship with the Father.

• Jesus' Self-Understanding as Messiah and Son of God: The evidence from Jesus' relationships, words, and deeds indicates that he believed himself to be the Messiah appointed by God to bring about the climactic saving act in human history. He saw himself as the Son of God with the authority to speak and act on God's behalf.

• Rapid Development of High Christology: The fact that a high Christology proclaiming Jesus as God incarnate emerged within 20 years of his death suggests this belief was not invented later, but was rooted in the historical Jesus' own self-understanding.

8. The Psychological Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Skepticism towards Mental Health Experts in Court: The chapter discusses the skepticism towards psychologists and psychiatrists who testify in court about the mental state of defendants. This is exemplified by the tongue-in-cheek proposal by a New Mexico state senator to impose certain requirements on such experts, suggesting an underlying distrust of their assessments.

• Jesus' Mental Health Evaluation: The chapter explores the question of whether Jesus was "crazy" when he claimed to be the Son of God. It presents an interview with a psychologist, Gary R. Collins, who concludes that Jesus did not exhibit any signs of mental illness or disturbance, and was in fact "much healthier than anyone else" he knows.

• Explanations for Jesus' Miracles: The chapter examines various attempts to explain away Jesus' miracles, such as the idea that they were the result of hypnosis or psychosomatic healing. Collins systematically refutes these explanations, arguing that they fail to account for the scale, spontaneity, and lasting effects of Jesus' miraculous acts.

• Belief in the Demonic: The chapter touches on the topic of Jesus' exorcisms, and Collins acknowledges that while some psychologists may be skeptical of the existence of demons, there are cases that do not respond to conventional medical or psychiatric treatment, suggesting the possibility of demonic influence.

• Jesus' Attributes and Divinity: The chapter concludes by considering whether Jesus truly embodied the attributes of God, beyond simply claiming divinity. The author notes that Jesus' profound wisdom, eloquence, compassion, and overall psychological health suggest that his claims to be God incarnate were not the result of delusion or mental illness.

9. The Profile Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Jesus' Forgiveness of Sin Demonstrates His Divinity: The fact that Jesus could forgive sins, which is an attribute only God possesses, is one of the most striking things he did and indicates his divine nature.

• Jesus' Sinlessness is a Characteristic of Deity: Unlike other holy figures who are acutely aware of their own shortcomings, Jesus could claim with a "straight face" that no one could convict him of sin, demonstrating his moral perfection.

• The Incarnation is a Central Mystery of the Christian Faith: Reconciling Jesus' divine attributes (omniscience, omnipotence, etc.) with his human limitations during his earthly life is a profound theological challenge that cannot be fully explained, only synthesized based on the biblical evidence.

• Jesus is the Eternal, Uncreated Son of God: Passages like John 3:16 and Colossians 1:15 that refer to Jesus as the "begotten" or "firstborn" do not imply he was created, but rather affirm his status as the unique, supreme heir of the Father.

• Jesus' Claim to Deity is Consistent with the Attributes of God: Despite apparent contradictions, Jesus' words and actions ultimately match the portrait of God painted in the Old Testament, demonstrating his full divinity.

• Jesus' Teachings on Hell Reflect God's Righteous Judgment, not Cruelty: Hell is the consequence of unrepentant rebellion against God, not an arbitrary punishment, and serves to uphold God's perfect justice and holiness.

• Jesus Did Not Explicitly Condemn Slavery, but Transformed Hearts to Overcome Oppression: While Jesus did not directly attack the institution of slavery, his gospel message had the power to transform individuals and societies, leading to the eventual abolition of slavery.

10. The Fingerprint Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Fingerprint Evidence and Messianic Prophecies: Just as fingerprint evidence can conclusively identify an individual, the messianic prophecies in the Old Testament form a "figurative fingerprint" that only Jesus could have fulfilled, establishing with a high degree of certainty that he is the Messiah.

• Louis Lapides' Spiritual Journey: Lapides, a Jewish man, initially had negative perceptions of Christianity and Jesus, but after encountering Christians on Sunset Strip and being challenged to read the Old Testament, he discovered the messianic prophecies that pointed to Jesus as the Messiah, leading to his conversion.

• Objections to Jesus as the Messiah: Lapides addresses common objections to Jesus fulfilling the messianic prophecies, such as the "coincidence argument," the "altered gospel argument," and the "intentional fulfillment argument," demonstrating the strength of the evidence for Jesus as the Messiah.

• Probability of Fulfilling Messianic Prophecies: The statistical probability of anyone other than Jesus fulfilling just a few of the messianic prophecies is astronomically low, effectively ruling out the possibility of coincidence or manipulation.

• Resistance among Jews to Accepting Jesus: Despite the compelling evidence, many Jews remain resistant to accepting Jesus as the Messiah, often due to factors like ignorance of the prophecies, fear of ostracism, and the influence of anti-missionary organizations.

• Experiences of Other Jewish Believers: Lapides' story is not unique, as other successful and thoughtful Jewish people have also embarked on a quest to refute Jesus' messianic claims, only to ultimately conclude that he is the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament.

12. The Evidence of the Missing Body

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Historicity of Jesus' Burial: The chapter presents strong evidence that Jesus' body was placed in a tomb by Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Sanhedrin that condemned Jesus. This is supported by the early creed in 1 Corinthians 15 and the multiple, independent accounts in the gospels.

• Security of the Tomb: The tomb where Jesus was buried was secured with a large, disk-shaped stone that would have required several men to roll back, making it difficult for the body to be removed without detection.

• Discrepancies in the Gospels: While the gospel accounts of the empty tomb contain some minor discrepancies in details, such as the names and number of women who visited the tomb, the core elements of the story are consistent across the accounts, suggesting a historical core.

• Reliability of the Women Witnesses: The fact that the first witnesses to the empty tomb were women, whose testimony was considered unreliable in that cultural context, strengthens the historicity of the account, as the gospel writers would not have invented such embarrassing details.

• Early Preaching of the Empty Tomb: Contrary to the claim that the early Christians did not cite the empty tomb, the chapter shows that the empty tomb is implicit in the preaching of the apostles in the book of Acts.

• Implausibility of Alternative Theories: The chapter examines and rejects various alternative theories, such as the body being stolen or the women going to the wrong tomb, as less plausible than the resurrection hypothesis, which is the best explanation for the historical evidence.

• Philosophical Considerations: The chapter acknowledges that the resurrection is a miraculous event, but argues that it is not inherently improbable if one accepts the existence of God, which can be established through independent philosophical arguments.

13. The Evidence of Appearances

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Absence of Eyewitness Accounts: While the tomb of Jesus was found empty on Easter morning, there are no eyewitness accounts of the actual resurrection event. This does not, however, negate the evidence for the resurrection, as scientific investigation often relies on examining effects rather than directly observing causes.

• Reliability of the 1 Corinthians 15 Creed: The creed found in 1 Corinthians 15:3-8 is considered by scholars to be an early Christian tradition that predates the writing of the Gospels. It provides powerful testimony to the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus to various individuals and groups.

• Corroborating Testimony in the Gospels: The Gospel accounts, while not eyewitness descriptions of the resurrection itself, provide multiple, corroborating reports of Jesus appearing to his disciples and others after his death. These appearances are further confirmed in the book of Acts.

• Challenges to the Resurrection Accounts: Potential objections, such as the accounts being legendary in nature or the appearances being hallucinations, are addressed and found to be unconvincing in light of the cumulative evidence.

• Personal Significance of the Resurrection: For Habermas, the reality of the resurrection provided profound personal comfort and hope in the face of his wife's terminal illness and death, demonstrating the transformative power of this belief.

14. The Circumstantial Evidence

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Circumstantial Evidence Can Be Powerful: Even without direct eyewitness testimony, a strong case can be built using circumstantial evidence, as demonstrated in the Timothy McVeigh case. This principle can also be applied to the case for the resurrection of Jesus.

• Disciples Willing to Die for Their Beliefs: The disciples were willing to face torture and death for their conviction that they had seen the resurrected Jesus. This level of commitment is difficult to explain if their beliefs were false.

• Conversion of Skeptics: The conversions of skeptics like James (Jesus' brother) and Saul (the apostle Paul) provide additional circumstantial evidence, as their radical changes of heart and mind are best explained by an encounter with the risen Christ.

• Radical Changes to Jewish Social Structures: The early Christians' willingness to abandon or radically alter five key Jewish social and religious structures (animal sacrifices, Mosaic law, Sabbath observance, monotheism, and Messianic expectations) is a significant circumstantial evidence, as these were deeply cherished beliefs.

• Emergence of Communion and Baptism: The rapid adoption of the sacraments of Communion and baptism, which centered on the death and resurrection of Jesus, provides further circumstantial evidence for the reality of the Resurrection.

• Explosive Growth of the Early Church: The remarkable emergence and rapid spread of the Christian church, despite its unlikely origins and message, is a historical phenomenon that is best explained by the Resurrection.

• Ongoing Encounters with the Risen Christ: The personal experiences of transformed lives through an ongoing relationship with the resurrected Christ provide the final, confirming piece of evidence, according to Moreland. This experiential test is a logical next step for those convinced by the cumulative circumstantial evidence.

Conclusion: The Verdict of History

Here are the key takeaways from the chapter:

• Reliability of the Gospels: The biographies of Jesus (the Gospels) can be trusted as they reflect eyewitness testimony, bear the earmarks of accuracy, and were able to pass various evidential tests. The fundamental beliefs about Jesus' miracles, resurrection, and deity go back to the very beginning of the Christian movement.

• Preservation of the Gospels: The New Testament manuscripts are exceptionally well-preserved, with 99.5% textual accuracy and no major Christian doctrines in doubt. The early church's criteria for determining the authoritative books ensure we have the best records about Jesus.

• Corroborating Evidence: There is abundant evidence for Jesus outside the Gospels, including over 100 facts corroborated by 39 ancient sources. Several secular sources and early creeds also confirm the deity of Jesus.

• Archaeological Confirmation: Archaeology has enhanced the credibility of the New Testament, with no discoveries disproving biblical references. The careful historical reporting of Luke, for example, lends credibility to his accounts of the resurrection.

• Jesus' Self-Understanding: The earliest traditions show that Jesus had a supreme and transcendent self-understanding, believing he was the Son of God, the Messiah, and the only one who could save the world.

• Jesus' Mental State: Psychological analysis indicates that Jesus exhibited no signs of mental illness and was in full contact with reality, brilliant, and able to form deep relationships.

• Fulfillment of Messianic Prophecies: Jesus uniquely fulfilled the detailed Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah, against astronomical odds.

• Evidence for the Resurrection: The empty tomb, the post-resurrection appearances, and the rapid emergence of the early church in the face of persecution provide strong evidence for the historical reality of Jesus' resurrection.

• Rapid Development of Belief: The core beliefs about Jesus' deity, atonement, and resurrection emerged virtually instantaneously, within the lifetimes of his contemporaries, leaving no time for legendary development.

• Personal Response: The author's personal investigation led him to conclude that it would require more faith to maintain atheism than to trust in Jesus as the Son of God. This resulted in his decision to receive Jesus as his Lord and Savior.

Discussion

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